Philosophical Anthropology, Human Nature and the Digital Culture :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

Philosophical Anthropology, Human Nature and the Digital Culture Conceptual: Within contemporary Western way of thinking, the issues of human instinct and our place in the universe have to a great extent been overlooked. In the subsequent vacuum, the different subcultures that have grown up around the advanced PC (the purported computerized culture) have been effectively characterizing and forming well known originations of being human and the spot of humankind in the computerized period. Here one finds an understood perspective on human instinct that incorporates intermittent subjects, for example, an accentuation on mind as data free of the physical body, the out of date quality of the human body, the disposal of human disposition, the pliability of human instinct, and the rationale and organization of the PC as a representation for the universe. This perspective on human instinct offers significant qualities with Cartesian and Christian perspectives on human instinct since quite a while ago dismissed by thinkers. A reestablishment of the philos ophical human studies development †dedicated to the issues of human instinct and humankind's place in the universe †licenses us to see the deficiency of the origination of human instinct certain in the computerized culture. What am I that I am a person? What is my place in the idea of things? At the end of the twentieth century, confronting the beginning of another thousand years, the objective of paidea or reasoning instructing humankind may best be accomplished by theory recouping and reaffirming its enthusiasm for these two anthropological inquiries. In this paper I guard this case through an investigation of the perspective on human instinct certain in the advanced culture. For as far back as quite a few years, while scholars have generally overlooked anthropological issues, the sub-societies whirling around PCs and other advanced innovations have been occupied with molding and characterizing the manner by which human instinct will be imagined in the following thousand years. As a rule, in any case, these perspectives on human instinct are delivered in a philosophical and basic vacuum with little idea given to what we as individuals are and what we may turn into. Scholars must address this vacuum by reestablishing their obligation to address these issues, by and by taking up crafted by articulating a philosophical human sciences and giving the direction on these issues that they once did. Reflection on our tendency as people and our place in the universe has a long convention in theory all through the world and has most likely been a focal worry throughout the entire existence of Western way of thinking.

Chadwick Inc Essay Essays

Chadwick Inc Essay Essays Chadwick Inc Essay Chadwick Inc Essay The worry conspires that are remembered for the reasonable scorecard for Norwalk Division are: expanding return on all advancement payment. satisfying customer requests. also, the improvement of representative achievements. The plan that is non grasped in the decent scorecard is the 1 in regard to driving bearing obligation to the most reduced degree. This plan was non included in light of the fact that there should be an equalization in obligation through the organization. Worker imprints and actuations are firmly connected to the open introduction of the division ; more obligation given to staff at lower degrees could build the chance of chiefs puting plans for their ain advantage and division. This could take to differences between authoritative finishes and the closures set by bearing for a particular division. New advances that should be created and remembered for the fair scorecard are return on inquire about capital. stock benefit. stock improvement cut. figure of stocks a work in progress. what's more, figure of workers take separating in planning plans. The means created request to be straight identified with the point and can gracefully criticism for that exceptional nation. ( B ) A Balanced Scorecard created for the organization will vary to one that is explicitly produced for a specific division in an organization. The points of an organization in general are barely extraordinary to the points that are set for a division or area. Hierarchical points which are explanations that understandable what the organization would like to help through will incorporate the entirety of the points over the various divisions of the organization ; where as divisional points are pointed unequivocally at that division. This may follow in various advances utilized in the scorecards to gauge open introduction partner to the particular point. For delineation. Chadwick Inc. works in numerous worries including individual customer stocks and pharmaceuticals. The organizations by and large point is to deliver top notch stocks and secure them to the market quicker at lower costs. For its segment. the Norwalk Pharmaceutical Divisions point is to build the yield of new stocks and to chop down the clasp and expenses of the product improvement beat. This divisional objective turns into a part of the company’s current points and is the point that is centered around when building up the divisional scorecard. The divisional adjusted scorecard was chosen by the leader of Chadwick Inc. to be created in a way ‘that was directly for the division’ . This decentralized dynamic and approval assault may make battle between divisional scorecards and those of the organization. This assault to building up a divisional scorecard may offer ascent to negative impacts. Executives may focus unnecessarily barely on their ain units open introduction and plans rather than accomplishing the general organizations closes. It could other than take to contradictions at the hierarchical degree. The benefits of decentralization exceed its limitations and ought to be embraced in the organization. Be that as it may. to show signs of improvement of the battle of difference among authoritative and divisional scorecards. top heading requests to let for decentralization just to a limited degree and assurance that every division is staying alert and contemplating the general authoritative point. ( degree Celsius ) The worry plan of an organization or division is utilized to embody how all the single exercises are composed to achieve a pined for result. Building up a plan is basic as it is utilized to put the general method of the worry. The worry plot for Norwalk was created by one individual and inside a couple proceedingss. For ideal results and clear way. a plan ought to be created over a more drawn out clasp period and the fair scorecard ought to non be made until all the members included have an away from and vision of the worry. From the earliest starting point of the endeavor it could be said Greenfield was non dedicated to the advancement of the decent scorecard for the Norwalk division. He did non accept how committed Chadwick Inc. was to the develop. Any Balanced Scorecard undertaking will disregard on the off chance that it is viewed as simply another â€Å"management fad† . It needs sponsorship through dynamic conveying †imparting that clarifies why the organization needs the Balanced Scorecard and how it will benefit both the division and people. During the strategy there was other than a lack of committedness from all the individuals. it took them a few hebdomads before meeting and focussing on the endeavor. The clasp spent building up a reasonable scorecard is of import. in the event that it is surged it could take to negative impacts when it is actualized. The divisions of Chadwick were exhorted that only troublesome informations ( financial data ) is to be utilized in the reasonable scorecard. Money related data totally only gives short-run plans ; non-budgetary informations offers a closer nexus to since quite a while ago run hierarchical plans. Thusly by grasping just monetary informations the decent scorecard will flexibly only a short-run venture to quantify the division’s open introduction.

In need of a retreat COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

In need of a retreat COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Each year, at the beginning of the fall semester, is what we here at SIPA like to call “retreat season”. Each concentration and specialization organizes a weekend-long retreat for students throughout the month of September. The retreat is an opportunity for first and second year students to get better acquainted in a fun and engaging environment. Students are able to share experiences and knowledge, such as the “do’s and donts” of SIPA student and academic life. Additionally, this is a great opportunity for students to get to know faculty members and professors in a less formal way. International Finance and Economic Policy (IFEP) Retreat Over 80 IFEP students attended the annual retreat in September held at Camp Kinder Ring in Hopewell Junction, New York. After traveling for two hours by bus, students arrived and had lunch together. Shortly after, Professor Richard Goldberg led an interactive discussion about the financial crisis with students. Professor Andrea Bubula, the IFEP Executive Director, also attended the retreat and gave students an overview of the concentration and its competitive advantages in the current job market. The rest of the afternoon was spent with students playing tennis and basketball at the camp. In the evening students enjoyed dinner followed by a dance party. Despite the near freezing temperatures, students enjoyed this opportunity to get to know each other and learn more about the IFEP concentration. Energy and Environment (EE) Retreat On the 28th of September, the EE concentration had its yearly retreat in the wonderful Kinder Camp as well. This was a great chance to escape from the city and enjoy a nice autumn landscape, lake included, but also a fantastic opportunity to get to know the new members of our SIPA community beyond the Columbia campus. There were several fun outdoor activities including the hilarious build and the whats your shoe size/eye color grouping game. At one point, even some brave Seeples dived into the lake! The trip couldnt be complete without a bonfire and s’mores, which of course quickly turned into a party that many will remember for the musical variety (yes, someone played reggaeton). International Conflict Resolution (ICR) Retreat The International Conflict Resolution retreat brought together 25 SIPA students as well as faculty and guest speakers for a weekend of inspiration and recreation. Saltzman Professor of Professional Practice and International Conflict Resolution specialization director Jean-Marie Guéhenno kicked off discussion on Syria, supported by adjunct faculty member Richard Gowan. Guest speakers David Haeri (MIA, 1997) and Sarah Cliffe (MIA, 1996), both senior United Nations officials in New York, shared insights on the field of conflict resolution and inspired students with their personal stories and experiences. The retreat closed with a conflict type exercise, where students assessed their personal approach to conflict using role play to demonstrate reactions under a variety of scenarios, both calm and stressful. In addition to some self-discovery, canoeing, and a lakeside bonfire, students left the retreat with new friendships and some intellectual stimulation to help them embark upon the n ew semester.

French Revolution Essay - 812 Words

The French Revolution lasted from 1789 to 1799. Although there were several factors that made the French Revolution possible, such as population growth, the expansion of the middle classes, and the rise of an informed public, there were three immediate causes of the Revolution. One was the diminished authority of the royal government. Another was the revolt by the nobility, who sensed a weakening monarchy. The third cause was the crop failure. The government of France was in a financial crisis. The country was deeply in debt from the financing of the wars of Louis XIV. To deal with the nation’s economic problems, Louis XVI called for a meeting of the Estates General in 1789. The Estates General was made up of†¦show more content†¦As he stationed his army in and around Paris, crowds of Parisians stormed the Bastille on July 14, 1789. There they hoped to find weapons and other ammunition to use in resisting and fighting the troops of the king. The Bastille was captured and torn down. This event and numerous other tumultuous events made Louis realize the urgent need for reforms. The National Assembly met in August of 1789 and considered feasable changes. By the end of the month, the Constituent Assembly (the name the National Assembly renamed itself) adopted the quot;Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizenquot; as a preamble for the new constitution. In 1791, a new constitution was written by the Constituent Assembly. It left the monarchy with little control of France, and put into effect a separation of powers. The monarchy was powerless against the Constituent Assembly, which had power over the government. Louis and his family’s attempt to flee the country made it clear that the king was not loyal to his country. When the National Convention, the new Assembly, met on September 21, 1792, it proclaimed France a republic, and Louis was put on trial for treason and for being a member of the monarchy. He was found guilty of treason and other crimes, and died under the guillotine on January 21, 1793. The death of the king opened the revolution to more tumultuous change led by the radical groups.Show MoreRelatedThe French Revolution And The Revolution1523 Words   |  7 PagesThe French Revolution was a time rife with violence, with many revolutionaries using extreme actions to overturn the French Monarchy and create a government based on equality and justice, rather than tyranny and despotism. This violence reached gruesome and terrible heights throughout the revolution, but was justified by the revolutionaries, who believed that their goals of total equality, the end of tyranny, and the return to a virtuous society, allowed them to use means necessary to attain theseRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Revolution1336 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis The French Revolution was such an important time history. Not only was it a massacre with many lives being lost, including that of Queen Marie Antoinette and her husband King Louis XVI, it was also a time of great political turmoil which would turn man against man that being the case of Edmond Burke and Thomas Paine. Edmond Burke a traditionalist who believed the people should be loyal to the king against his former friend, Thomas Paine a free thinker who believed in order for things toRead MoreThe Revolution Of The French Revolution1040 Words   |  5 PagesWhile there were political and social causes of The French Revolution the most important cause was actually economic. A few years before the French’s revolution the French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres, 13 billion dollars, on the American Revolution. This gracious contribution caused trouble at home. The French Revolution was one of the most important events in history. While it changed the social structure in France it also affected many different countries across the world. â€Å"the treeRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Revolution1640 Words   |  7 Pages The French Revolution is often seen as one of the most influential and significant events in world history (Voices 9). The surge of rebellion present in those against the old regime, or Ancien Rà ©gime, inspired reformers for generations to come. Nevertheless, the French Revolution would not have occurred without the aid of the Enlightenment Thinkers, or Philosophà ©s. These Philosophà ©s’ ideas sparked the French Revolution. Prior to the French Revolution, France was radically different. It was theRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Revolution1321 Words   |  6 Pages The French Revolution The French Revolution was an iconic piece of history that help shape the world. It was a time were great battles occurred. Blood sheds happen almost every day. The streets were red by the blood of bodies that were dragged from being beheaded. The economy was in bad shape. But before all of this the French had a few goals but there was one goal that they all wanted and that was to get rid of the monarchy. This idea did not arrive out of nowhere, the commoners were influenceRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Revolution1223 Words   |  5 Pages French Revolution As the Enlightenment began in the middle of the 17th century, people began to use reason rather than stick to tradition. New Enlightenment ideas spread throughout Europe such as ideas on government. Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousenan believed that the best government was one formed with the general consent of the people. Other Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu believed in freedom of speech and a separation of power within the government. All of theseRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Revolution1221 Words   |  5 PagesWhen people think of the French Revolution, they immediately think of the country of France and how the Revolution affected it. What most people do not think about however, is how the Revolution affected other countries, specifically the country of England. England was affected positively and negatively by the Revolution in that there was an increase of political involvement, but there was a collapse in the economy due to war declared by France. The French Revolution created a battle of conflictingRead MoreRevolutions And The French Revolution956 Words   |  4 Pages Revolutions are a common occurrence throughout world history. With the amount of revolutions in history, there are those that get lost and those that are the most remembered or well known. One of the well known revolutions is the French Revolution which occurred in the years 1789 to 1799. Before the French Revolution, France was ruled by an absolute monarchy, this meaning that one ruler had the supreme authority and that said authority was not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customsRead MoreThe Revolution Of The French Revolution1636 Words   |  7 Pageswas an old fortress that had served as a royal prison and in which gunpowder was stored. This will be the place where Parisian crowds will lay siege on and use the gunpowder for their weapons, and this will become a great turning point in the French Revolution. 3) The Great Fear was the vast movement that the peasant insurgency of sacking nobles’ castles and burning documents would blend into. This attack was mainly because of seigneurial dues and church tithes that weighed heavily on many peasantsRead MoreThe French Revolution And The Revolution1180 Words   |  5 PagesLooking at the historical timeline, one can see that the French Revolution derived after the Enlightenment, which brought different ways of thinking, and different outlooks on government and society (553),(555),(558). The Enlightenment also changed the world of public debate, and established some ideas central to the French Revolution. The French Revolution of 1789 occurred due to government debt, class conflict, bankruptcy, the Enlightenment, and the rule of absolutism. These social, economic, and

Gun, Hunting, And Personal Defense - 1024 Words

Putting rounds down range every time you pull the trigger on your firearm is very important, whether for target shooting, hunting, or personal defense. Equally important to putting rounds down range is the proper maintenance of your firearm. There are many types of firearms in today’s world with some that are more complicated than others in their operation and maintenance. One of the easier firearms to maintain is the Armalite Rifle, Model 15, otherwise known as the AR-15. The basic disassembly, or field striping, of the AR-15, is universal regardless of who the manufacture is or how the gas system is set up. You will only need a clear work surface, a beach towel or similar item, and a number 2 punch to complete the disassembly process.†¦show more content†¦Place your towel flat on your work surface before proceeding (this is to help prevent oil, grease, powder residue, and your firearm from damaging the work surface). The first step in disassembly after making the we apon clear and safe is to separate the upper receiver group from the lower receiver group. Locate the takedown pin, which is located just above the safety, and the pivot pin, which is located at the front of the lower receiver. With your number 2 punch depress the takedown pin from the left side. You should feel a noticeable click when the takedown pin overcomes the force of the takedown pin detent. Repeat for the pivot pin, being careful not to push the pin all the way through the receiver. The takedown pin and pivot pins should now be partially extended on the right side of the lower receiver. Lay the firearm on its left side so it lies flat on your work surface. Grasp the takedown pin from the right side and pull till it fully extends out the right side of the receiver. Again, you should feel a noticeable click when the detent pin engages the takedown pin at the fully extended position. Now repeat by grasping and pulling the pivot pin till it fully extends out the right side of t he receiver. Next, while holding the lower receiver group, grasp the upper receiver group and slide it clear of the lower receiver group. At this point the lower receiver group disassembly is complete, so sit it to one sideShow MoreRelatedThe Freedom And Freedom Of The United States Of America1603 Words   |  7 Pagesdefended by our courageous, gun wielding soldiers. Currently, in this turbulent time of politics in our nation, many of our rights and privileges are being aimed at for attack and infringement. In this case, particularly, it is the American citizen s right to bear arms. This right must be protected and preserved for the sake of the people of America and the country itself. U.S. citizens should be allowed to bear arms because they are an incredibly useful tool for self-defense, the second amendmentRead MoreDifferent Gun Laws Around the World Essay984 Words   |  4 PagesFirearm laws and polices are different around the world. For example, some countries such as t he United Kingdom, South Korea, Germany, and China have strict limits on gun possession, while others, like Switzerland, the Czech Republic, and the United States, allow larger access, while countries like Canada, and Finland are somewhere in the middle. Most countries hold the power to protect themselves, others, and police their own territory. However, this power can be taken away under unpredictableRead MoreShould Gun Control Be Banned?1191 Words   |  5 Pagessafety and opinions from people who either support or oppose gun control. With all the recent terrorist activity and violence, many people feel uneasy about the idea of others owning firearms. Some believe that firearms should be banned to create a safer environment. On the other side, many people claim that owning and carrying guns would provide a safer society since we would be able to defend ourselves. I do not believe that banning guns would make this country safer, but instead it would createRead MoreFiring Back At Gun Control Essay1433 Words   |  6 PagesJacob Wilson Ms. Aukes English II 3 September 2014 Firing Back At Gun Control In America there are about 200,000 women that use guns every year to protect themselves against sexual crime (Snyder). Gun control is where the government puts laws on someones ownership of a firearm. Gun control is a tricky topic and has the nation somewhat split both ways on it. 62% think that there is little concern for firearm restriction, while 33% say there is a need to worry about it, and the other 5% are indifferentRead More America Needs Some Gun Control Essay1552 Words   |  7 Pages Gun control is the effort to restrict or limit the possession and use of guns. The gun control debate may be one of the most important issues in our society. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2008 that the 2nd Amendment restrains the government’s ability to ban handguns. Some politicians are passionate about gun control and make voting decisions based upon on this issue alone; hence, the people we elect into office directly affect our lives. A few republican politicians have a strongRead MoreGun Control Of The United States1166 Words   |  5 PagesSince America’s birth, guns have played a large part in it’s society. Citizens of the United States have used firearms to protect the land they love, and their families. They even use them for engaging activities such as hunting and sport. Though firearms may seem to have a commonplace in society, weighing the rights and liberties of citizens against the safety and welfare of the public has always been a delicate process. In the United States, gun control is a of heated issue that has two sides.Read MoreTaking a Look at Gun Control1263 Words   |  5 PagesGun control is one of the most controversial topics in our country. There are two main views. The first is the view as it is said in the United States Constitution, they guns should be legal for civilian ownership. The second view, and the severity of its enforcement varies from person to person, it that gun control should be enacted . This could just mean smaller magazines, to no semi-automatic guns, or even to a complete ban. The founding father’s view is basically what is still used todayRead MoreIn Recent Years, We Have Seen An Increase In Mass Shootings1638 Words   |  7 Pagesmore gun laws be enacted?† Firearms are rooted deep our country’s history; our founding fathers having fought the revolutionary war for our freedom recognized the importance of guns to citizens. Adding it as a fundamental right in the constitution as the second amendment. Stating that A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. In this essay, I will be making the case for why stricter gun lawsRead MoreThe Case Of Statled Amendments In The State Of Colorado1157 Words   |  5 Pagesproperty owned or controlled by her. A permit is needed by all qualified citizens in Colorado to lawfully possess any firearm. State Constitutional Provision. The state gun law was established by the state constitutional provision Article 11, Section 13 which states that â€Å"the right of no person to keep and bear arms in defense of his home, person and property, or in aid of civil power when thereto legally summoned, shall be called in question; but nothing herein contained shall be constructed toRead MorePersuasive Essay On Bear Arms1201 Words   |  5 PagesDuring that time, there were no public safety systems, like the police, and there were no automatic weapons available. From a personal protection angle, people own guns for self-defense, is impractical and glamorized. There is no reason for a person who lives in the suburbs to have a semi or fully automatic rifle or multiple weapons. Even if the arguement is for hunting for example, you should not need an semi or fully automatic rifle. People who live off the grid or need to hunt for food to live

Journalism Is Art Free Essays

Journalism Is Art Journalism is defined as â€Å"writing that reflects superficial thought and research, a popular slant, and hurried composition conceived of as exemplifying topical newspaper or popular magazine writing as distinguished from scholar writing. † Art is defined as â€Å"the quality, production, expression, or realm, according to aesthetic principles, of what is beautiful, appealing, or of more than ordinary significance. † So how are the two related? Journalism and art are related by definition because of two things. We will write a custom essay sample on Journalism Is Art or any similar topic only for you Order Now First, they are related because they both require superficial thought. Without creativity or a critical thinking process the article is not going to be different from anyone else’s. What separates the New York Times journalist from a college newspaper journalist? It is not just pay. It is pure experience and creativity. Any good writing requires creative thinking. Each piece of writing is individualized by the character and creativity of the writer Same with art. If everyone thought the same way then we wouldn’t have amazing paintings like the Mona Lisa by Leonardo Devinci or Starry Night by Vincent Van Gaugh that stands out from your local artist. Each artist has different styles of painting. An example would be modern art and scenery art. Each requires different strongholds in different areas of skill. Just like journalists, one writer may write amazing columns but when it comes to a hard news article they are not as strong. Secondly journalism and art is related by definition because they both have more than ordinary significance. Sylvia, who writes for the TAXI design network quotes, â€Å"When we are so deeply moved by an experience that we want to share it with others, we are where art begins. Art does not need to be â€Å"understood† or to be enjoyed. Like life itself, it can simply be experienced. Yet the more we understand what art can offer, the richer our experience of it will be. † This statement can be related to journalism. As a journalist, we write about what moves us to share or inform others. Articles are not always written to be enjoyed. They are sometimes used to break the most horrid news. These types of articles just can only simply be experienced. This is part of the art of journalism. It is part of life. Good journalism as well as good art has impact on our life. An article may reveal secretes of the government and ddress problems that we should be aware of in our community. Art impacts our life the same way. The painting La Maja Desnuda by Spanish painter Francisco Goya raised much controversy in the late 1700’s. This painting was one of the first nude paintings depicting pubic hair on a woman. Goya was stripped of his position of a Spanish court painter after this painting was revealed. It impacted p eople, just like journalism. This semester I have had my first experience as a journalist. I am taking a newspaper print class and writing for the school newspaper, The Bridge. When I first started the class I had no clue what I was getting into. Tight deadlines, different styles of articles, gathering information from sometimes non-willing sources, and the whole separate art of photojournalism were a shock to me. I perceive journalism as an art because of experience. Just like a painting it takes time, creative thought, and has different styles Many people argue that journalism is a dying art or not an art at all. I can agree with the fact that journalism is a dying art. Before television and radio, newspaper print was the only way of circulating the news other than by word of mouth. It is much different in this day and time. We now have television that have reporters report to us live news. A newspaper can not break the news live for its audience. Newspapers are finding it harder to be successful in this day and time. On the other side of this argument, people have more opportunity to write as a journalist because of internet. It no longer binds us to local writing. A person in Kentucky can write an article for the New York Times and simply send it by e-mail in the matter of seconds. Some people do not think journalism is an art because they have not experienced it for themselves. Just like me, before I experienced journalism for myself I thought it was just like any other type of writing. These people think journalism is old fashioned and would much rather have their news delivered to them by television, bypassing reading an actual article because they want to be informed the easiest way possible. They believe televised media is more accurate and easier to be comprehended. We need to save the art of print journalism. When was the last time you seen a teenager reading an actual print of the newspaper when they were not in it? I think schools should make students read news papers to be informed of current issues in the community. This would better improve their reading skills and promote newspaper print. Journalism as an art will only die out if we let it. Work Cited â€Å"Art† Dictionary. com Random House, Inc. February 13, 2013. â€Å"Journalism†. Dictionary. com. Random House, Inc. February 13, 2013 Sylvia. â€Å"Visual Arts- More Than Ordinary Significance† designtaxi. com. TAXI design network August 16, 2005. Web February 3, 2013. â€Å"10 Most Famous Paintings of all Time. †touropia. com. Touropia. October 30, 2010 Web. February 3, 2013 . How to cite Journalism Is Art, Papers

Political system comparison between India and China

Unmistakably, India and China have gradually developed in the economic sectors due to effective organization in their political systems. The two countries found in the Asian continent, despite being third world countries, have advanced in the technological know how. It is unbelievable that the western countries face a serious competition from these nations due to the political stability found in the two countries.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Political system comparison between India and China specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The political systems in China and India are stable therefore the two countries have developed both econonomically and socially (Wang, 2003). Consequently, this paper attempts to compare their political systems, process and the policies in China and India. Finally, the paper hypothesizes the future of India and China in relation to their political systems. India is a democratic c ountry which is headed by the president. The major functions of the president include; powers to declare the state of emergency that allows the lower house (Lok sabha) to extend the five year term, chief legal adviser of the government and signing of the bills from the parliament (Manion, 2000). The members of parliament have an obligation to vote for a persistent president. Among the members of parliament is the Electoral College. An electoral college is made up of the lawmakers. The number of these members is proposed to be 4500. Also there is a post of vice president who is elected by the members from both the upper and the lower houses. An individual who has an obligation to chair the upper house is the vice president. The upper house of the Indian parliament is identified as Rajya Sabha (Goldstein, 1990). India has got the post of prime minister who is the head of the government affairs. Some stages are usually followed during the selection of a prime minister. First, a group o f individuals from the lower house are expected to nominate the prime minister. Finally, the president is given the duty to select the Prime Minister (White, 1994). The prime minister is expected to advocate for the best ministers. He then leaves the remaining task to the president to select the ministers. The ministers then form the Council of Ministers. The parliament of India is proposed to have two houses. One of the houses is the lower house. This is also known as house of people or Lok Sabha that has got 552 members. 530 members come from various states in India, while 20 members come from the union territories of India and 2 members are representatives of the English and Indian communities (Almond, 1956). The president should dismiss the movements in the lower house after five years of operation. Unless the president exercises his power of declaring state of emergency, the lower house may precede the five year term of operation. For instance, the lower house in the years1962- 1968 experienced extension due to declaring the state of emergency (Goldstein, 1990).Advertising Looking for research paper on political culture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The election to the lower house is held at large magnitude in the 530 states in India which are completed after the five rounds which may last up to one month. The second one is the upper house. According to White (1994, p. 23), â€Å"The upper house on the contrary is also referred to as the council of state or Rajya Sabha which consists of 250 members†. The 238 members of this house are elected by the state or territorial agencies according to the number of people while the remainder 12 members are elected by the president basing in the knowledge of their specialization in various fields. The upper house lasts for a term of six years of which the session of the house is continuous. As a result, the upper house in India is not affected by the d issolution from the president (Dickson, 2003). Both the upper and lower houses perform similar functions i.e. legislative functions therefore they share some of their duties. However, the lower house is the most powerful in the conflicting matters since it is made up of almost double the number of members found in the upper house (Manion, 2000). In India, there is a system of multiparty where there are several political parties in the lower and the upper house. It is mandatory that a political party is recognized in four states for it to be called a national party. A political party can never be referred to as a national party unless it is acknowledged in four states. State parties are names used to refer to parties that are not acknowledged in either four or more states (Dickson, 2003). Likewise there are state parties and national parties in the India political system. However it can be noted that the Indian National Congress has been dominating the Indian politics since its incep tion in 1885. It was formed majorly with an aim of fighting for freedom but afterwards it engaged in politics of India and its leadership has rotated within the Gandhi family. For instance some of its leader include; Jawaharlal Nehru Gandhi, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, Sonia Gandhi etc. Other major political party that is found in India is Baratiya Janata Party, abbreviated as BJP. This party was formed in the year 1980 with an aim of catering for the needs of social and religious values for the Indian people. India is a country that has a considerable number of minor political parties.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Political system comparison between India and China specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Amongst them is the Nationalist Congress Party as well as the Bahujan Samaj Party (Wang, 2003). State parties in India operate in restricted regions and some of them include; Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pra desh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Aryana, Punjab etc. The judicial system of India consists of the Supreme Court as the highest organ in the provision of justice to the people of India. The chief justice is selected by the president. The president does this basing on the guidance from the prime minister. In White (1994, p. 24), it is quoted that â€Å"Civil cases are dealt with in both high courts and magistrate courts†. Such cases are chaired by the judges. China has a complex political system however it practices communism. China is a socialist republic where the working people act as the leaders of the country. Therefore the power of deciding the future of this country lies in the hands of the citizens rather than leaders of the government or political party leaders. Therefore the national people congress (NPC) and the local people congress (LPC) are the organizations that represent the people in their duty of exercising control of the country. The National Peoples Congress is the powerful organ in the republic of China and it is made up of deputies from 35 different units (Manion, 2000). The main work of the national congress is making and amending of the law, determining the budget of the government. This is the supreme organization in PRC therefore it has powers to appoint or demote senior officials. The terms of office of the national people congress is five years and for every year there is a convention where the members of the congress gather to discuss ideas. For instance it is the work of the national people congress to nominate and elect senior officials such as the president and the chairman of the committee of the NPC. Also the prime minister and various ministers are appointed by the national people’s congress and they can be removed from these positions by the same organ through legal procedures. The national people congress is therefore a major unit in the administration of the country since it not only provides the people with an opportu nity to exercise power over the destiny of their country but also assists the state agencies to intermingle and share the work. This helps in developing the spirit of socialism of which the people republic of China relies on this policy.Advertising Looking for research paper on political culture? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The selected president and vice president in China are expected to be in leadership for a period of five years. These individuals are appointed by the national people congress. It is worthy to note that china is also a democratic republic where there is exercising of multiparty (White, 1994). The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the leading party therefore it is dominant in decision making in the National Peoples Congress. This is because after the decisions are passed in the people’s congress, the decision is subject to scrutiny by the CPC. This makes the peoples republic of china to sound like a one party state however there is existence of other political parties. In Dickson (2003 p.32), â€Å"there are other eight political parties and some of them include; China Association for Promoting Democracy, China Democratic League, China Democratic National Construction Association, Taiwan Democratic Self Government League, Jiusan Society, Chinese Peasant and Workers Democratic Party†. However these political parties work hand in hand with the communist party of China since the CPC is the dominant party i.e. the ruling party (Wang, 2003). This means that there is interaction and consultation between the ruling party and the other eight political parties. Therefore the CPC is supported by other parties in ruling the people republic of china. Consequently, there is no opposing party in the debate of national issues since there is cooperation between the CPC and the other eight political parties (White, 1994). In India, political socialization occurs when the president interact with the prime minister in appointment of senior officials. For instance, a proposal must be made from the prime minister before the president is guaranteed the freedom to choose the ministers. The same applies to the prime minister who is selected after approvals from groups of individuals from the lower house. From this, it is derived that the president has to cooperate with t he prime minister while performing his activities. Another instance where political socialization occurs in India is the working between the lower house and the upper house. Both houses are involved in legislative duties however the lower house has supreme powers over the upper house therefore the former handles sensitive bills such as money bills. In special circumstances, there is joint session between the two houses. The two houses are therefore the socialization agents in India. This is because in the lower house, members are elected directly from the 530 states of India. The members have a duty of representing each person that is found in the constituency. In the upper house, the members are elected indirectly by the president or other legislative units. As a result of this, most of the interests of the common man are catered for since there is a representative in the parliament. On the other hand, political socialization in China is witnessed through the cooperation and consul tations between the ruling party CPC and other parties (Goldstein, 1990). The minor parties participate in the discussions concerning the state affairs and policy implementation while the ruling party takes into consideration the ideas. Therefore there is sharing of ideas where the parties are dependent on each other. The final decision that is made by the ruling party is reached upon consultation with the other eight political parties. Therefore the agent of socialization in the china political system is the political parties that provide democracy to the people of china. Through the ruling party CPC, the people are able to express their opinions Articulation and aggregation of interests of the people in republic of India is through political parties. India has a system of multiparty where the parties fight for the interests of the common man. This is done by means of articulation where the needs of the citizens are expressed in a simple way so that they can be understood clearly b y the political system. For instance, communist party of India fights for the recognition of the rights of the Marxist group found in republic of India. Aggregation of interests of the people is achieved through analyzing various opinions from the people and then identifying the common ideas among them (Almond, Powell, Dalton Strom, 2008). The parties then represent these common ideas in the parliament so that the interests of the citizens are fulfilled. For instance, the Baratiya Janata Party which recognizes the social and religious rights for the Indian people. On the opposite, the articulation and aggregation of interest of the people of republic of china is achieved through the dominant party CPC. The communist party is a unitary party of china since it is ruling with assistance from other parties. The ideas from other parties and individuals are welcomed by this party hence the interests of the people are adequately represented. In India, public policy is crafted by the parli ament that involves both the lower and upper house (Almond, 1956). However the lower house has supreme legislative power as compared to the upper house. This system of parliament is known as bicameral where the two houses share the responsibility of making and amending the laws. The formed laws then become public policies of which the people of this nation are compelled to follow. Things are different with China since the public policies are designed by the National People Conference. The National People Conference also enacts laws concerning the civil cases, crime and other important laws. In conclusion, India is likely to become less democratic since the power of making the laws lies on the hands of the two parliaments. The individuals are represented by the members of the parliament which present a risk of inadequate representation. Also the president of the republic of India is elected indirectly by the members of the legislative unit which denies the citizen their democratic ri ght of voting for their favorite president. However if economic prosperity is to occur in India, the political culture is likely to change from the normal. This is because the political system in India denies the citizens a chance to elect the president and the vice president. As a result of this, people might not be represented adequately in the parliament. Furthermore, people are likely to be independent hence the political parties will decrease in number hence their will be no opposition to the government. As a result, India is entitled to change in the interest aggregation and the creation of the public policy. Since the political system is subject to become less democratic, appropriate measures will be taken to create the public policies and also cater for the interest’s aggregation. Contrary, China is likely to be more democratic since the people are directly involved in the state affairs through the national peoples congress. The views and suggestion of the people of c hina are likely to be put into consideration since the supreme organ is the NPC. Consequently, the political culture in China is likely to remain the same with increase in economic prosperity. This is because the powers are centered to one supreme body hence there is great unity among the state departments and corporations. The interests’ aggregation and the creation of public policy in China are likely to remain the same. This is because the national people congress involves the people of China directly in the governance of their country. Reference List Almond, G.A. (1956). Comparative Political Systems. The Journal of Politics, 18, 391- 402. Almond, G.A., Powell, B., Dalton, R., Strom, K. (2008). Comparative politics today.  9th ed. London: Pearson Longman publisher. Dickson, B.K. (2003). The Supremacy of the Communist Party of China. Journal of  Democracy, 14(1). Goldstein, A. (1990).Explaining politics in the Peoples Republic of China: The structural alternative. Com parative Politics, 22(3), 301-322. Manion, M. (2000). Chinese Democratization in Perspective: Electorates and Selectorates at the State Level. The Chinese Quarterly, 163, 700-721. White, G. (1994). Democratization and Economic Reform in China. The Australian  Journal of Chinese Affairs, 31, 72-97. Wang, J.C.F. (2003). Contemporary Chinese Politics-An introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. This research paper on Political system comparison between India and China was written and submitted by user Kane V. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

THE BEGINNING essays

THE BEGINNING essays Prenatal development is the period in development from conception to the onset of labor. Perinatal period is the period beginning about the seventh month of pregnancy and continuing until about four weeks after birth. Postnatal development is the period in development the follows directly after birth. The germinal stage is the stage lasting about ten -fourteen days following conception before the fertilized egg becomes implanted in the uterine wall. The embryonic stage is the stage in which major biological organs and systems form. The fetal stage is the stage in which is marked by rapid growth and preparation of body systems for functioning in the postnatal environment. Viability is the ability of the baby to survive outside the mothers womb. The gestational age is the age of the fetus derived from onset of mothers last menstrual period. The number of older mothers is on the rise in the U.S. as women postpone pregnancy to establish careers or for other reasons. Healthy women older than thirty-five routinely deliver healthy infants just as other between the ages of twenty and thirty-five do. Teenagers, however, may be at a greater risk for delivering less healthy babies. Lack of prenatal care is a big reason. Diets, while pregnant, must be sufficient not only in number of calories but also with respect to the right amount of proteins, vitamins, and other nutrients. Stress also plays a big role in delivering a Cultural beliefs about potentially harmful consequences of frightening or stressful events on fetal development are pervasive, and many societies encourage a calm atmosphere for pregnant women. The social support a pregnant woman receives from family and friends is an important factor that can lessen the consequences of stress Another reason is the complicated nutritional needs of teenagers. Teenage mothers give birth to as many as 500,000 babies in ...

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How to Make a Book in 5 Ultra-Simple Steps How to Make a Book: Binding a Hardback in 5 Simple Steps When we talk about how to make a book in 2018, we often talk about exporting files to Kindles and other ebook readers. But what about the old-fashioned art of making a book by hand? Some say that bookbinding is a dying art - but we reckon it’s due for a comeback.In this post, we’ll show you how to make a beautiful book. Not just any blank tome but a beautiful novel, memoir, or non-fiction book - formatted to a professional standard, and bound in a hardback cover. And the best part is that it should cost you no more than fifteen or twenty dollars! Want to know how to hand-make a hardback book? Look no further! So if you’ve written a piece of fiction or non-fiction and you want to know how to make a copy that you can gift to someone special (or have as a keepsake), simply follow all the steps below. Or if you’re looking to create a blank notebook, feel free to jump straight to step three.You will learn how to:Format your book to a professional standard (for free)Print your book into signaturesAssemble the signatures into bound foliosCreate a hardcoverCombine the elementsWhat you will needAnd there you have it! A beautiful work of art that will take pride of place on your bookshelf - and you made it all by yourself. Congratulations!If you have any questions about making a book or using Reedsy’s formatting tool, drop us a comment in the box below.

British expatriate managers coping with culture shock in the USA Dissertation

British expatriate managers coping with culture shock in the USA - Dissertation Example Various researches show that many of the expatriates who relocate to US to live and work often have mixed views regarding this, relatively, new nation. Many non-Americans, including many expatriates from UK, who relocate to the United States to do business to their bewilderment, find themselves undergoing a severe case of â€Å"corporate culture shock.† This article will examine the various problems and dilemma experienced by the expatriate managers when they relocate to foreign locales, with special focus on the British expatriate managers who generally face a culture shock as they move to live and work in the USA British expatriate managers coping with culture shock in the USA 1 Introduction 1.1 Background history â€Å"I think there’s just some incredible things that we could learn from other people’s cultures†- anonymous US expatriate manager. ... e managers with a bid to expand globally (Mercer Human Resource Consulting, 2001), while almost three-fourth of the expatriates are accompanied by their family members (Dickmann, Doherty, Mills, and Brewster, 2008). Expatriates within multinational companies play a vital role in initiating various foreign ventures and subsidies, and during troubleshooting at these offshore project sites. Globalisation along with economic liberalization that started in the early half of the 20th century made it necessary for many of the business firms to expand their trade and commerce globally, along with establishing an international distinction. In this context Bartol and Martin (1998) tells us that the process of globalization is in reality a strategy for worldwide integration where the chief objective of the various business firms is developing comparably standardized materials with a global address, along consolidating all the operations taking place at the worldwide level. In order to achieve t his goal, the organizations must necessarily send their chosen representatives for the various foreign projects, in order to oversee the work at site locations, and maintain the product and service standards in these foreign countries. Companies that with globalisation, have broadened their scope to create a worldwide presence and name, are often referred to as the multinational companies or MNCs (ibid). The origin of the modern form of multinational companies or MNCs that we see today can be traced back to the post World War II era. Though some companies may have started during the late 19th century, the development actually started from the late 1940s. However, it was only during the early 1980s, that various researchers in the fields of global HR management and expatriation (Evans,

Chinese Logistics Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Chinese Logistics Companies - Essay Example ........................................................................... 20 How to devise strategy for logistics companies in China to fit in the tough market environment 1. Introduction The subprime crisis has had an enormous effect on the global financial markets. It has also affected the Chinese economy. China's economy has been faced with many difficulties which include global slowdown, the undulation of the oil price, pressure of RMB appreciation and inflation. The subprime crisis has been particularly cruel to the Chinese economy. The logistics industry in China is still at the beginning. Although it is developing fast, it has many problems. The out-dated management styles, obsolete information technology and haphazard planning of capital construction in the national transportation system and so on restrict the development of the logistics industry in China. However foreign competitors pay attention to this potential market due to the fact that their existing operational capabilities elsewhere can be effectively utilized in China. Flynn (2006) argues that foreign logistics companies entering the Chinese market, especially after WTO accession, brought tremendou s pressure to bear on the local companies. This situation forces them to improve their technology and reformulate their strategy. At the same time, the Chinese government recognizes the significance of the logistics industry to China's continuing economic prosperity. Millar (2006), for instance has shown that the Chinese government has seen logistics as a strategic imperative. Gradual deregulation combined with immense investment in the transportation infrastructure to improve the logistics development is an inevitable outcome of this desire. While, depending on the...However foreign competitors pay attention to this potential market due to the fact that their existing operational capabilities elsewhere can be effectively utilized in China. Flynn (2006) argues that foreign logistics companies entering the Chinese market, especially after WTO accession, brought tremendous pressure to bear on the local companies. This situation forces them to improve their technology and reformulate t heir strategy. At the same time, the Chinese government recognizes the significance of the logistics industry to China's continuing economic prosperity. Millar (2006), for instance has shown that the Chinese government has seen logistics as a strategic imperative. Gradual deregulation combined with immense investment in the transportation infrastructure to improve the logistics development is an inevitable outcome of this desire. While, depending on the government's help is not enough. The logistics companies must revise their strategies to promote their competitive advantage to coordinate with the policy. If they cannot they will be left behind. Realizing how to devise strategy for logistics companies in China to fit in the tough market environment is becoming more and more important to the logistics companies. The aim of this research paper is to highlight on logistics op

Problems Faced By The Vodafone Sales Team Business Essay

Problems Faced By The Vodafone Sales Team Business Essay Through this research been carried out successfully then only I will be able to classify the core reasons for the problem. From the reasons identified I will be able to solve the problems. After solving these issues faced by Vodafone, Vodafone will be more successful in running the floor and will be able to be helping Vodafone sales team to advance their day to day operations through a given timeframe. It is also help them to implement and evaluate the solutions specified. The management concept used in order to solve the issues identified is Fayols Management theory concept: By means of this concept it has helped me to get the possible solutions for the business problems identified by the Vodafone sales team managers and also to find the reasons behind the core problems. 2.4AIMS AND PURPOSE OF STUDY AIMS To identify some general business problem that exists within the Vodafone organisation. To know the reasons behind the problems taking place. How to resolve these business problems. To discover how solving these problems would be feasible for Vodafone. To ensure that all information about Vodafone given by myself in this business proposal is fair and accurate to my best extent. The problems identified are relevant and suitable to work on duration of this course because the problem identified is ongoing in many organisations in New Zealand. The problems Im elaborating on are significantly important to be solved and thus the learning outcome will be of assistance to me when I join the workforce. PURPOSE To get more practical knowledge on how to find reasons and solutions behind problems. 3.1RESEARCH PROCESS TO GATHER PRIMARY DATA EXPLAINED AND JUSTIFIED The research procedure was carried out by a mixture of research methods (Quantitative and Qualitative). Methods outlined: Research Questionnaires Face-to-face interview Exploring attitudes and behaviour of the staffs of Vodafone In using these research methods I was going to: Find facts primary data The process also includes interviews of the staffs and managers to find out the reasons of the problems and then work out the solutions for the problems identified. A content analysis was also used to find out the facts of the analysis and get solutions. 3.2PRIMARY PROCESS/SIZE OF SAMPLE POPULATION The initiation of this project started with the formulations of ideas as to what needs to be looked into to reach the aim of this survey. Once that was done, a questionnaire was made with regards to getting a specific ins and outs of what goes on the a Vodafone contact centre and how its inefficiency can leading to failed productivity. The sample size was quite small as this related to just one area within the greater Vodafone Business. On the 10th of April about 10 staffs were given questionnaires to fill and the choice was given to them either to put their name or leave them anonymous. I also did face to face interview of the 2IC of the Sales Team. From the responses provided in the questionnaire I was able to do an analysis of the problems. 3.3STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE TASK The statistical tools used in this project included the employment of Fishbone diagram Gannt chart Henri Fayol management theory. 3.4INTERVIEW CONDUCTED AFTER SURVEY (DATES AND TIMES IN APPENDIX) An interview was carried out on the 2nd of April of some of the staffs and managers of the Vodafone Sales teams at the Vodafone Sales office in Penrose, Auckland City, New Zealand. 3.5LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY OF MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO TOPIC I have reviewed some: Vodafone Catalogues Articles in newspapers Internet Research The research comes under the process of controlling. The managers of Vodafone necessitate using Fayols 5 functions of Management in order to get to the bottom of the issues they are facing at the moment. 3.6RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS USED The research methodology was carried out by a mixture of research methods (Quantitative and Qualitative). Face to face interview Questionnaire Interview Participant observation Fishbone diagram 3.7STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF STUDY STRENGTHS: The staffs were very helpful. They were quite open to answering the questions. LIMITATIONS: Inaccuracy of results. Sample size is not good enough as I couldnt get the responses of all people. Hard to summarize the data. 3.8MANAGEMENT THEORIES USED TO HELP EXPLAIN METHODOLOGY In order to recognize the problems and to find the reasons for the problems I have used the SWOT analysis and the â€Å"Cause Effect† Fishbone diagram. The swot analysis has helped me to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and treats of Vodafone. This method has helped me to identify the business problems, draw conclusions and to translate these solutions into a Strategic action plan. This method has also been able to provide me with assistance in consolidating the strengths, reducing the weaknesses, grab the opportunities, minimize the treats, facilitate the plan and alternative choices, help to innovate and ensure the well being and prosper ship of Vodafone in achieving the goals and missions. The fishbone diagrams has helped in to jot out the possible solutions to the problems Vodafone is facing and also the steps and resources needed to achieve these solutions. It shows the problems, the solutions and the 6 categories. Process Management Equipment People Material Technology The fishbone diagram is in the appendix as Figure 2. 4.1SUMMARY OF PRIMARY RESEARCH RESULTS After a complete search and interviews I got some invaluable information and some primary data. For Vodafone the business problems identified were under the OTHERS category. Upon identifying the problems I have also identified possible solutions to the acknowledged problems. The research results after the interview also showed: THE PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED AND THE RESONS BEHIND THEM: CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: -mind set of managers -priority given to some culture only -preference of the leader ILLEGITIMATE SICK CALLS: -strict management -Lack of Motivation AGENTS NOT SHOWING UP TO WORK WITHOUT NOTIFICATION -poor management -lack of rules in the department LACK OF MOTIVATION -from the Managers from upper level STAFFS ARE COMMITTING FRAUD. -weak management -lack of motivation -mind set of employees that they can get away with any fraud LACK OF POWER TO STAFF MEMBERS -poor management INEFFICIENT MANAGEMENT -lack of motivation 4.2ANALYSIS OF DATA WITH RESULTS OF PRIMARY RESEARCH ANALYSEDAND DISCUSSED RELATING TO AIM AND PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION I myself believe that these problems are common for gigantic companies such as Vodafone. As the researcher I have identified the business problems and the possible solutions which will also help Vodafone sales team to improve their day to day operations through a given timeframe. It is also help them to implement and evaluate the solutions specified. Its important to resolve these problems as soon as possible reason being failure to get a resolution on Vodafones part will result in inefficiency and diminished customer faith in the company. 4.3RESEACH DATA ANALYSED AND INTERPRETED Face to face interview was carried out and first hand information was obtained from personnel whose working with the organisation of study. It is not taken from any old Vodafone reports which may be outdated and obsolete because reports are done periodically and. An interview with a Vodafone employee gave me 1st hand information. 4.4LIST OF POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS AND CONSEQUENCES 1. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Possible solutions: Managers need to develop their leadership skills and treat everyone equally putting aside the culture difference of the staffs. They require more training. 2. ILLEGITIMATE SICK CALLS. Possible Solutions: Get rid of the free to call sick line number and get sick calls to come to managers directly. Make a requirement for the actual employee to call in rather than having their family members call on their behalf. 3. AGENTS NOT SHOWING UP TO WORK WITHOUT NOTIFICATION. The procedure in place take care of such scenarios includes the following steps: Making contact with the agent who is not showing up. Sending an email request to make contact with Vodafone. Once a month has passed, a final call is made to the person absent to make contact with the company to discuss their future with the company. If contact is made, then there are further procedures such as a probation period for the agent. If contact is not made, then the agents contract is terminated. 4. LACK OF MOTIVATION. Possible Solutions: As providing motivational promotions can be costly, during the in between time, promotions should be invented which is not too expensive but enough good enough to boost team morale. Managers should make sure theyre setting a good example of efficiency and enthusiasm. Set goals and reward the staff when the goals are achieved. The reward can be as simple as a star on the calendar and a bigger reward at the end of the month if there are enough stars for each day. 4. STAFF IS COMMITTING FRAUD. Possible Solutions: Monitor calls and see if there is a pattern of a particular number calling multiple times to identify fraud. 5. LACK OF POWER TO STAFF MEMBERS. Possible Solutions: Vodafone identified that the number of these escalations were growing exponentially so just recently a new tool called VODAFONE HERO was launched to give agents over the phone additional powers to assist customer further and increase customer faith in the business. 6. INEFFICIENT MANAGEMENT Potential solutions Ensure that reminders are saved for one on one meeting and these are scheduled in advance. Ensure that all updates are done through direct communications. 4.5MANAGEMENT THEORY USED TO EXPLAIN MEANING OF FINDINGS OF RESULTS AND RELEVANCE To discover the possible solution for the problems identified and to find out the core reasons behind these problems I have used Henri Fayols creative problem solving techniques: i.e. 1. PLANNING 2. ORGANISING 3. COMMANING 4. COORDINATING 5. CONTROLLING 4.6EVIDENCE OF ORIGINAL RESEARCH The evidence of the original research is in the appendices section including: Interview Questionnaire Fishbone diagram as problem solving tool. I have also researched: Internal- Vodafone Sales 2IC questionnaire. External-references, online assistance. 5.1STATEMENT OF CONCLUSION Upon completion of this research it has helped me in identifying the problems, the reasons behind the problem and the possible solutions to the problems. It has also provided me with the awareness of problem solving skills and if Im in the workplace I will be able to distinguish and solve problems efficiently. 5.2CONCLUSIONS MUST BE LOGICAL FROM THE RESULT AND DISCUSSION 5.3CONCLUSIONS MUST LINK BACK TO AIMS AND PURPOSES OF RESEARCH. 5.4CONCLUSIONS BASED ON EVIDENCE 5.5CONCLUSIONS PRIORITISED 5.6RATIONALE FOR FINAL RECOMMENDATION 5.7RECOMMENDATION MUST BE RELEVANT ADDRESSING PROBLEM AND ISSUES 5.8RECOMMENDATION TIMELY AND FEASIBLE 5.9RECOMMENDATION PRIORITISED 6.0MANAGEMENT THEORY USED TO EXPLAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Racism and the Criminal Justice System

Tor aaaresslng tne economic crlsls wnlcn Tlrst appeared In tne m10 ana late slxtl In other to restore sagging business profits, and then the welfare of working people had to be sacrificed. Another criminal Justice crackdown has become, intentionally or otherwise, a way to manage rising inequality and surplus populations. And the poor people where the one that suffered the situation throughout this process of economic restructuring, particularly poor people of color.Thus it is poor people of color who make up the bulk of American prison. Also, equality was one of the roblems that blacks suffered during Jim Crow laws and it was what white American fears most. Not until February 17, 1919, when thousands of African American soldiers fresh from victory in the Ardennes offensive marched triumphantly up Fifth Avenue, through Manhattan's cheering crows toa Harlem homecoming. This was because they had lived up to their end of the bargain with America.So they expected the full rights of Citize nship, nothing less, only a year earlier, while they fought in France. Jim Crow and other hated laws that stigmatized African Americans had been reaffirmed. But this civil rights moment was not to be. Instead the euphoria of victory evaporated to be replaced by the worst spate of anti-Black violence; labeled the Red Summer, the riots and lynchings would last from April to November 1919, claiming hundreds of lives, and leave thousands homeless.Mostly Blacks where the victims, at least twenty seven major riots and mob actions immobilized the nation's capital and cities large and small, including Chicago, Omaha, Knoxville, Charleston, and the delta town of Elaine, Arkansas, but something happened that whites had not expected. Emboldened by the war, whether from experience in the trenches or not the factory loor, or in the cotton fields of the rural south, blacks fought back; picking up any weapon that was at hand, their retaliation against armed mobs was swift.It was the first stirring s of the civil rights movement that would change America forever. Bibliography Mcwhirter Cameron. â€Å"Red summer†. New York: Herny Holet, 2011. Parenti Christian. â€Å"Lockdown America†. New York: Verso, 2008. Heard Alex. â€Å"The Eyes of Willie Mcgee†. Mississippi: Jim Leeson, 2010. Loury C. Glenn. â€Å"Race Incarceration and American Values†. Boston: Pamela S. Karlan, Tommie Shelby, and Loic Wacquant, 2008.

The Honest to Goodness Truth on Foster Mba Essay Samples

The Honest to Goodness Truth on Foster Mba Essay Samples My long-term career objective is to launch or join a big startup devoted to bettering education and creating educational opportunities where they don't currently exist. Next, you must discuss how an MBA can help you attain both your short-term and long-term targets. An MBA is a critical part of my career objectives, and as such plays an important part in achieving my life objectives. Not just any MBA should do the job for your objectives. Personal satisfaction also plays an essential part in my career choice. You may not be as specific about companies or job titles when speaking about your long-term objectives, but it doesn't indicate you shouldn't have a strategy. To start with, it's essential to denominate the goals you want to accomplish or the plans you've got for the future. If you are requested to write about your individual objectives, emphasizing what you want to accomplish professionally will be out of place and will show you as an inattentive individual. Finding the Best Foster Mba Essay Samples High school isn't free in Kenya. Admissions officers want to learn about YOU. They want to know what excites you. Don't buy low-cost toilet paper Thing you how you can apply to commence the measures you working on the mba admissions. MBA essays can be difficult to write, but they are among the main sections of the MBA application approach. MBA application essays supply you with a chance to speak. How to compose an mba essay. Furthermore, the essays that follow are most likely to supply comfort, that there's no formula or singular approach to craft a thriving answer. Wordiness, especially in the debut, will get you nowhereand may switch off the reader. Such questions need deep introspection for you to get to the core of your nature and influences. You may always request help from our writers. For instance, if the company school requested a DOC, that is what you need to send. Describe how you are going to be a distinctive accession to the business school community. Show the admissions team the way the lessons learned by means of this experience will let you contribute to your peers at Kel logg. To write a good deal of your mba that. Now that you know all the elements of the essay, it's time to begin writing. Evaluated carefully and request wharton mba application essays are, you're a topic. Send one particular school an essay meant for anotheror neglect to alter the school name when employing the exact same essay for many applications. If you take a look at any good MBA essay examples which you will come across on the internet you will observe that the standard of writing employed is quite high. You should make your essay personal. The essays are completely superb. Such essays could also include things like failure essays or essays that ask you to speak about an ethical dilemma that you could have faced. Additionally, your essays will give an awareness of how well you communicate. The 30-Second Trick for Foster Mba Essay Samples You must make sure that your writing is like any of the samples that here they're able to supply you. Choose a subject, which could potentially demonstrate your very best qualities. Many samples are offered at ProfEssays.com. MBA Essay Help is an internet academic writing service in the united kingdom from where you can get premium high quality custom written papers at inexpensive rates. The Little-Known Secrets to Foster Mba Essay Samples As a consequence, the function wasn't very profitable. As you proceed through the procedure, you will realize a more powerful, logical and impactful version emerging. You will dependably require some di rection in case you will compose something which will force you to stand out. Where to Find Foster Mba Essay Samples Adjust your paper accordingly in the event the reader found it tough to comprehend what question you addressed. Ultimately, Stanford's very first essay question is extremely personal, therefore it's probable you'll want to rely on friends, family members, and colleagues to help you work through your ideas. The difference between both questions is the audience. Maybe you think that you're able to answer the very first portion of the question in 1 word, with things like family, love, or chocolate. To successfully answer the question, there are a couple things which you will need to stay in mind. Thankfully, if you stick to the hints above and pick something which has real cost related to it, then you will have emotion built in immediately. Nevertheless, there's one essential difference. While applying, you can experience that the application procedure can be taxing. For this post, is the on-line application. The use of fiction about our on-line application procedure.

Virtue and Pleasure in Aristotle and Kant - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 35 Words: 10465 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? The Relation between Virtue and Pleasure in Aristotle and Kant Introduction Every action and choice is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. (Aristotle: 1094a1-3). Philosophy has always been concerned with trying to determine why we do the actions we do: what are we hoping to achieve by performing certain actions? The above quote is Aristotles opening sentence in the Nicomachean ethics, but how are we actually meant to achieve this good that we are aiming for? Many people in the world would be happy to support the claim that the good is achieved by being virtuous but what exactly does this entail? For Aristotle, moral excellence comes about as a result of habit (Aristotle: 1103a16-17) and happiness is an activity of soul in accordance with complete excellence (Aristotle: 1102a1-2). It then seems we are safe to claim that the good, (moral excellence), corresponds with happiness, but was he right? And does this happiness include pleasure, or is it excluded? Are virtue and pleasu re synonymous? Can they even exist harmoniously at all?. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Virtue and Pleasure in Aristotle and Kant" essay for you Create order Throughout the history of thought, philosophers have attempted to discern that element of human nature that can be most aptly described as the action of taking pleasure in doing certain actions, and in the consequences that arise from any given action. The role of virtue in this pleasure process has been assessed and criticised for hundreds of years; does being virtuous give us pleasure, or does pleasure distract us from doing virtuous things? Is happiness the key to a moral life? My aim in this essay is to address these questions, and related questions, according to the philosophies of Kant and Aristotle. In doing so, I aim to discover what the relation between virtue and pleasure really is, according to these two philosophers. My aim is to discover what the role is of both virtue and pleasure, and the connection between them, in the works of both philosophers, and try to establish where the two philosophies align, and where they are incompatible. At first, it seems as though both philosophers are wholly incompatible in their views of where our morality, our motivation to strive for the good, comes from. Even how the two define what the good is seems to differ too much to offer any similarities. As I briefly mentioned in my opening paragraph, for Aristotle, the purpose of human life is the good, and the highest of all goods achievable by action is happiness. And [many] identify living well and faring well with being happy (Aristotle: 1095a16-19). For Kant however, the question of morality is wrapped up in the concept of duty he does the action without any inclination, simply from duty; then the action first has its genuine moral worth (Kant 1997: 4:398). In this essay I will explain exactly what both meant, and critically assess their ideas, with the ultimate goal of somehow reconciling the two seemingly opposing viewpoints. In the process of doing this I will first give an explanation of the foundations of these views what part of each philosophers lifes work these ideas about morality have arisen from. Background When examining any philosophical theory I think it is of vital importance to understand how those particular ideas have been formed what part of the writers thought and theories have these ideas originated from? In this section, I will give a brief overview of whereabouts in their respective works do Kant and Aristotle expound their views on morality, in reference to both pleasure and virtue. Aristotles Nicomachean ethics is part of his practical philosophy (along with his Eudemian ethics), and is primarily a search for what the ultimate goal of human life is. Aristotle was a student of Plato, and as such was likely to have been influenced by his philosophy. It is nothing new to philosophy to be preoccupied with morality. Arguably Platos greatest work, The Republic is fundamentally an inquiry into morality and justice, and what sort of society would be best for cultivating the moral man. In book II of The Republic, Plato tells a story of the mythical ring of Gyges, which is a ring that renders the wearer invisible. Glaucon (the teller of this story in the dialogue) claims that no man, no matter how virtuous or just he is, could resist acting immorally if there was no danger of punishment (Plato: 359c-360c). Glaucon does not believe that any man who had no consequences to face would be moral his claim is that we are moral because society forces us to be so, through fear of being reprimanded. In this case, morality becomes a social construct, and has nothing to do with the singular man who would dismiss moral behaviour in an instant if he believed he could avoid castigation. Aristotles ethics do not follow this way of reasoning, he believes that man can be moral within himself, and also that a man is not virtuous simply by performing virtuous actions, his action must [also] proceed from a firm and unchangeable character (Aristotle: 1105a32-33). Aristotle is often misquoted about what he really meant, due to a mistranslation of the original Greek. Aristotle describes the goal of human life as eudaimonia, which is oft translated as happiness. However, the original meaning of this word is something more akin to being blessed as regards ones own spirit (Pakaluk 2005: 47), or more literally, human flourishing. Pakaluk (2005) goes on to explain the fundamental differences between our commonplace definition of happiness and how we must understand it as a translation of eudaimonia. Most importantly we must understand that Aristotles happiness is not a hedonistic happiness where pleasure is regarded as the chief good, or the proper end of action (OED 1989). Euda imonia is a stable, lasting condition, one that does not fluctuate according to day-to-day events it is an ultimate goal rather than a temporary one. It is also objectively universal it is not a subjective condition based upon the wants of each individual it is a state of being, not a mood or inclination, which is similar for all human beings and is characterised as living well the happy man lives well and fares well (Aristotle: 1098b20). Aristotles definition of virtue is also similarly misunderstood. The original Greek is arete which means any sort of excellence or distinctive power (Pakaluk 2005: 5). Thus being a virtuous person means possessing a certain sort of excellence (of character) which leads us to act virtuously. This form of morality bases the value of any action on the character of the agent an agent must be a certain type of person who will no doubt manifest his or her being in actions or non-actions (Pojman 2002: 160). We cannot take morality from the actions in themselves, because virtue can be demonstrated through the conscious omission of any certain action morality must instead be based upon the agent. For Kant, his views of how pleasure can affect the goodness, or virtue, of any action can be found most clearly in The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. The Groundwork (1786) comes between the two different versions of the Critique of Pure Reason that were published (1781 and 1787), and there is certainly a crossover of concepts, with Kant utilising some of the arguments of the Critique in the Groundwork. Namely, his distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal worlds, respectively, the world as it is in itself and the world as it appears to us. This distinction between the true essence of things, and their appearances provides us with two standpoints from which [man] can regard himself and cognize laws for all of his actions (Kant 1987: 4:452). The aim of the Groundwork is to proceed analytically from common cognition to the determination of its supreme principle (Kant 1997: 4:392). In other words, Kant wants to start from the common perception that every action has some sort of moral value and discover what the underlying principle of morality is, that causes this presupposition. This supreme principle that we uncover must be a synthetic a priori one we must be able to deduce it from what we already know, because we are trying to discern how we ought to be from the evidence of how we are. The Groundwork is the quest to discover what this principle is. According to Kant a virtuous person is someone who performs the right actions for the right reasons (which seems to be similar with Aristotles view the action itself does not hold any value the value instead lies within the agents intent). A person who acts thus demonstrates a good will, which is the only thing to which we attribute total merit It is impossible to think of anything that could be considered good without limitation except a good will (Kant 1997: 4:393). This good will possesses worth completely independently of any circumstances, both the means and the ends are good. Even if this will should yet achieve nothing, then [it is still] something that has it full worth in itself In other words, the good will does not need to achieve its end in order to be good, merely the attempt is so. Kant then introduces the concept of duty in order to explain how we are able to manifest the good will in our actions. The concept of duty contains that of a good will though under certain subjective limitations and hindrances, which, however, far from concealing it and making in unrecognizable, rather bring it out by contrast and make it shine forth all the more brightly (Kant 1997: 4:397). If we do our duty from duty (i.e. for its own sake, because it is the right thing to do, rather than due to some other inclination or motivating desire) then we are doing the right actions for the right reasons we are being virtuous. Kant uses formulations of his categorical imperative in order to demonstrate how we can determine what our duty is, although I will not go into them in this chapter. Kant shows that any system used to deduce our duty must be categorical, and not hypothetical, because a hypothetical imperative tells you how to achieve a certain end if you will x, then you must also will y in order to be able to achieve x. A hypothetical imperative is conditional, it depends on something else. A categorical imperative cannot be so it tells us what we ought to do unconditionally, not on the condition of something else. Kant uses his formulations of the categorical imperative in order to demonstrate when we can say an act is done from duty or not. If an act is done from duty for dutys sake, then it is a virtuous action, if not, then it is not, even if the action is not necessarily bad. Virtue and Pleasure in Aristotle Virtue can be taken to have several different meanings; the dictionary definition is conformity of life and conduct with the principles of morality; voluntary observance of the recognized moral laws or standards of right conduct; abstention on moral grounds from any form of wrong-doing or vice (OED 1989). For Aristotle the idea of virtue is the mean between two vices, stray but a little from the middle, and you are no longer being wholly virtuous. This Aristotelian view of virtue is often seen as in direct opposition to the Kantian view of virtue that the virtuous man is the man who acts solely from the motivation of wanting to do his duty, without enjoying the act at all. I will explain in full whether this common view of Kantian ethics is correct in the following chapter, and in this chapter I will explain what I mean by my definition of Aristotelian virtue, and exactly what that signifies in relation to pleasure. Aristotles ethics are usually defined as virtue ethics they are agent centred, and depend (like Kant) not on the act that is done, but instead on what sort of person we need to be, what sort of character we need to have, in order to be able to commit virtuous acts. Aristotle starts off the Nicomachean ethics by trying to discern what the goal of human life is, and in book one manages to come up with what standards he thinks this goal must adhere to what are the characteristics this ultimate goal must have in order to be classed as such? Aristotle states that we call complete without qualification that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else. Now such a thing happiness, above all else, is held to be: for this we choose always for itself and never for the sake of something else (Aristotle: 1097a34-1097b1). Our ultimate goal, the highest good, must be desired for itself only, and not as a means to something else. Aristotle refers to this ultimate goal of human life as eudaimonia, but what does this really mean? Does eudaimonia equate to hedonistic pleasure? Accordingly to Aristotle, eudaimonia is not synonymous with pleasure, he states that happiness is an activity of soul in accordance with complete excellence (Aristotle: 1102a1-2), so happiness is the achievement of pure excellence, or of complete virtuousness. Human flourishing is what we achieve when we successfully fulfil the human function when we excel at what it is that makes us distinctly human. This means, that in order to understand this human flourishing which is the ultimate goal of human life, we also need to understand the function of human beings Presumably, however, to say that happiness is the chief good seems a platitude, and a clearer account of what it is is still desired. This might perhaps be given, if we could first ascertain the function of man. (Aristotle: 1097b22-25). Aristotle believed that everything in the world has an ergon, a function, which is that for the sake of which it exists; therefore the achieving of this work, or, more precisely, its doing so well, is its good; but only a good thing of a kind achieves its function well (Pakaluk 2005: 75). For example, the function of a knife is to cut things, so a good knife must be able to cut things well, therefore a good knife must be sharp. If there is to be a human function, then it will be what makes us essentially human what it is that separates us from everything else in the world the thing that we are best capable of. But what makes Aristotle believe that humans necessarily have to have a function? Aristotle claims that it is merely common sense that man should have a function, because everything else in the world does Have the carpenter, then, and the tanner certain functions or activities, and man has none? Is he naturally functionless? (Aristotle: 1097b29-30). It seems clear that man must have a function just as any other thing does. So what is this function? If something only achieves its function well if it possesses the certain virtues that make it a good thing of its kind (like sharpness for the knife) then the human function must be something that is best achieved by humans more than anything else in the world. Or even, it may be something that is only achievable by human beings. A virtue is a trait that makes a thing of a certain kind good and in view of which we call a thing of that kind good. (Pakaluk 2005: 75). In this way, Aristotles function argument follows on to an investigation into what qualities human beings possess, what virtues they possess in their charac ter, that makes them distinctively human. In order to find out what the human function is, we need to find something that is distinctive to humans. It cannot be merely living, as that is shared with even plants, and it cannot be perception, because although that rules out plants, it still includes the animal kingdom. Instead the human function must be an active life of the element that has a rational principle (Aristotle: 1098a3-4). In other words the human function, that element of human beings which is characteristic to us alone, is our capability to reason; our rationality. Of course, this definition of the human function as rationality causes some problems in the case of people who have diminished rationality what does this mean for them? Take, for example, the mentally handicapped who have reduced capacities of reason through no fault of their own are they really less capable of living fulfilling and flourishing lives than normal people? Are they less good? It seems as though, according to this argument, we are required to count them as worth less. However, I will not dwell on this problem, as I am more concerned with what this idea of a function implies for the role of pleasure in Aristotles ethics. What then, does it mean that the human function is our capacity to reason? The human function is what we must achieve excellence in, in order to be good (just as the knife must achieve excellence in its function of sharpness, in order to be a good knife). This means that morality, and consequently virtue, are intrinsically linked to the human function, to our rationality it is our reason that allows us to achieve virtue. We must use our reason in order to discern what is virtuous. Our function of rationality is what allows us to achieve our excellence, to achieve our virtue. So how does our reason allow us to achieve our virtue? It allows us to choose whatever course of action we feel would allow us best to achieve our happiness, our telos (ultimate goal). Hursthouse (1991) reads Aristotle as meaning that an action is regarded as right because it is what a virtuous person would choose to do, but is it not the other way round? Does a virtuous person not choose to do certain acts because they are good? This problem is obviously reminiscent of Euthyphros dilemma from the platonic dialogue of the same name is a certain act considered good because God says it is so, or does God say it is so because it is good. For Aristotle the ability to choose the morally right action in any situation is an ability to follow the moral mean that moral excellence is a mean, then, and in what sense is it so, and that it is a mean between two vices, the one involving excess, the other deficiency (Aristotle: 1109a1-3). So for example, the virtue of bravery is the mean between cowardice and rashness. Aristotle also states that virtue is dependent on our character if we have the right character we will be predisposed to commit actions of the right sort. Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit states arise out of like activities. This is why the activities we exhibit must be of a certain kind (Aristotle: 1103b20-22). Therefore, if we habitually perform the right sort of action, then we will generate the right sort of character, thus enabling us to almost automatically choose the correct action, which sits in the middle of this scale between virtue and vice. Our eudaimonia is more and more fulfilled by each instance in which our character automatically chooses the virtuous action. Does this idea of virtue as the mean between two vices imply that pleasure is then a vice, being the vice at one end of the scale of the virtue of moderation, whilst the other end is despair? A virtue can be best described as the course of action that allows us to achieve our eudaimonia. So is pleasure more suited to this task than despair (if we take despair to be the other end of the scale)? Would the mean on the scale in actuality lie closer to the end of pleasure than the other? Is this a purely arithmetical mean, the exact midpoint between two extremes, or is it something more flexible? Just as everyone requires different amounts of food in their everyday life (such that everyones mean between scarcity and gluttony differs), would it not make sense that the mean of enjoyment is different for everyone as well? Such that enjoyment of life, whilst it does not mean a slavish commitment to complete hedonistic pleasure, could mean that pleasure does play an important role in our lives . I believe that Aristotle would agree with me here, since he states that no one nature or state is or is thought the best for all, neither do all pursue the same pleasure (Aristotle: 1153b29-30). In other words, we do not all desire the same pleasures to the same degree, instead we pursue only those pleasures which are best suited to helping each of us, as an individual, to achieve our eudaimonia. We can therefore agree with Shermans reading of Aristotle, that moral habituation is the cultivation of fine (or noble) pleasures and pains (Sherman 1989: 190). In this way, virtuousness does not mean a complete abandonment of all pleasure, but instead tells us that we should be interested in only those pleasures which are worthy of the rational mind. In some ways this bears similarity with Mills recalculation of Benthams utilitarianism that some pleasures (of the intellect) are worth more in the hedonic calculus than mere physical pleasures (Mill 2001). However, appreciation of the right pleasures is a taught skill also. By that I mean one of habit, such as virtue is according to Aristotle, and as such we ought to have been brought up in a particular way from our very youth, as Plato says, so as both to delight in and to be pained in the things that we ought (Aristotle: 1104b11-13). What is slightly problematic is that Aristotle gives two seemingly wholly different accounts of what pleasure is. In Book II he states that it is on account of pleasure that we do bad things (Aristotle: 1104b10), by this meaning that a love of pleasure for itself will lead us to ignore the virtuous path and live a life of pure hedonism, thus failing to achieve our telos of eudaimonia. In Book VII he states that the view that pleasures are bad because some pleasant things are unhealthy is like saying that healthy things are bad because some healthy things are bad for the pocket (Aristotle: 1153a17-18). This view is nonsensical, and would lead us to having to avoiding almost every type of activity. Some pleasures are bad, but this does not necessarily make all pleasures bad. However, whilst these two accounts do differ, there is a common theme between them, which is that pleasure is not necessarily bad, and can exist in harmony with virtue. However, we need to qualify exactly what pleasures we mean here, as not all pleasure can be called good. Annas (1980) interprets Aristotle as believing that pleasure is only good when done by the virtuousness man, because the habit of his character will lead him to only choose to act on those pleasures which are virtuous it is right for the good man to seek pleasure; pleasure will point him in the right direction. (Annas 1980: 286). Whereas the man who is immoral in habit will only persue those pleasures which confirm the deplorable tendencies of [him], since it will strengthen his habits of wickedness and weakness (Annas 1980: 286-7). Here, the important point is not that we need to avoid pleasure, but that we need to be sure that we are pursuing the right kind of pleasure before we act upon it the pleasure of the virtuous man, not the deplorable man. The obvious problem with this interpretation is that Annas at first glance seems to be claiming that only a good person can access pleasure in a good way. Where does this leave the immoral man who wishes to reform his character? Is there no possibility that he will be able to choose those pleasures that are good for his character? Is this what Aristotle is really saying when he claims that virtue is a matter of habit, of character? If the things [the good man] finds tiresome seem pleasant to someone, that is nothing surprising; for men may be ruined and spoilt in many ways; but the things are not pleasant, but only pleasant to these people and to people in this condition. (Aristotle: 1176a19-22). This quote for one certainly seems to be suggesting that the virtuous man will be able to steer clear of immoral pleasures, whilst the immoral man will not. Aristotle emphasizes several times the fact that his ethics is based upon repeated behaviour, on habit, and a short time [or virtuousness], does not make a man blessed or happy (Aristotle: 1098a18-19). What this means is that a period of immorality in a mans life does not necessarily preclude him from ever achieving his eudaimonia, and similarly, a brief period of virtuousness does not make a man wholly virtuous. Aristotles ethics is a system of right and wrong that demonstrates itself through habit, and habits can change, although it may be hard to dispose of bad habits, of immoral habits, because it has grown up with us all from our infancy; this is why it is difficult to rub off this passion [for immoral pleasures] (Aristotle:1105a2-3). This does not mean that it is impossible, indeed it must be possible to change our character, otherwise what we are taught in our youth would be how we remain for life, meaning that whether we become a good or a bad person depends more on our teach ers, rather than any attempt at morality by ourselves. We cannot be deprived of a chance at our eudaimonia just because we fail to receive the right training of character in our youth. It must be possible to reform and for the immoral man to pursue good pleasure or how else can he become a man who chooses only good pleasures out of habit? Some might claim that this seems unfair. If moral virtue is merely an act brought about by habit, then it is far easier for the good man to be virtuous that it is for the bad man to be so so where is the incentive for the bad man to change his ways and attempt to cultivate the right sort of character in order to be good by habit? But even the good is better when it is harder (Aristotle: 1105a10), and the bad man will be rewarded if he perseveres. If a bad man successfully changes his character to that of the virtuous man, then he is satisfying the human function, the human ergon, and he will be able to achieve the ultimate telos for human beings eudaimonia his human flourishing. The incentive for th e bad man to change his ways, no matter how difficult it may be, is that he will achieve the ultimate goal of complete happiness. In this way does the right sort of pleasure, lead first to the cultivation of a habit of character of complete excellence or virtue, which in turn then leads to ultimate happiness. However, as Hutchinson (1986) points out, there is a problem with this idea that, ultimately, restraint over which pleasures we decide to pursue is how we describe virtue. If discipline produces virtue and, when misguided, defect of character, by means of pleasure and pain, the virtues (and vices) are dispositions for enjoying and disliking things (Hutchinson 1986: 79). Hutchinson goes on to state that this cannot be so, because children are rewarded in the study of arithmetic through pleasure and pain. So then arithmetical skill is a disposition to enjoy or dislike certain mathematical operations. And that is not true; it is simply a disposition to come to the right answer (Hutchinson 1986: 79). For Hutchinson Aristotles argument is unsuccessful merely because it is too vague, a vagueness which allows for the arithmetical comparison to be made, and this would not be a fault suffered if the argument was constructed with more care. Ultimately, this means that although the argument is open to criticism, it leaves Aristotle quite confident in his claim that virtue is a form of character, created by the repeated habit of choosing the correct moral path that of the virtue at the mean point between two vices. And it is this mean point which will ultimately lead to eudaimonia. As long as pleasure is taken in moderation, it can still be synonymous with virtue, and allows for pleasure to be a part of our eudaimonia, the ultimate goal of human flourishing. Virtue and Pleasure in Kant For Kant being virtuous means acting in accordance with duty, for dutys sake, and not due to some other motivation in the place of duty (even if the same action would result).There are some philosophers (I will go into detail further on) who have claimed that Kants notion of duty eliminates the possibility of pleasure that is, if you take pleasure in any said action, it eliminates any dutiful intent that was previously present. However, I do not believe this is actually what Kant meant, and in this chapter I will explain why I believe this and attempt to elucidate exactly what Kant meant when he talked about duty, and the implications this has for our conception of pleasure. For Kant, an action can only have moral worth (i.e. be virtuous) if and only if it is done from duty, for dutys sake. So, in order to understand exactly when we can claim under Kants theory that we are being virtuous, we need to understand exactly how we are meant to do our duty, and to do this, we need to examine the categorical imperative. Although Kant does state that there is only one categorical imperative, he offers three different formulas of that law (Sullivan 1989: 149) so sometimes in philosophy the term is used more generally to describe these three formulas (and their associated examples) as a whole, rather than just the first formula by itself. Kant states that there is, therefore, only a single categorical imperative (Kant 1987: 4:421), but what is it, and how does he come to this conclusion? As I mentioned before, any categorical imperative must be synthetic because defining our morality depends on being able to formulate a synthetic a priori principle. A synthetic principle adds something new to our knowledge, and if it is also a priori, it means that this new knowledge does not depend on experience we are able to deduce this synthetic principle independently of any particular experience; we are able to deduce it by examining what we already know to be true about the world. This is because, for Kant, moral judgements are based on how the world ought to be, not how it is, so we cannot depend on our experiences of the world as it is to show us how the world should instead be. Morality cannot be based on experience, because we need an ethical theory that is capable of telling us what we should do, even in entirely new circ umstances. The categorical imperative is essentially a law, because while everything in the world is subject to the laws of nature, only rational beings possess autonomy, possess a (free) will, so are capable of choosing to act according to any given law. The idea of an objective principle in so far as it is compelling to the will, is called a command of reason, and the formula of the command is called an imperative. (Russell 2007: 644) Therefore, a theory of practical morality would be a theory of commands about how to act according to certain laws. A theory of morality would be a theory consisting of imperatives. Kant refers to his categorical imperative as the only one, because logically there can be only one ultimate moral law [although] each of the three formulas emphasizes a different aspect of the same moral law (Sullivan 1989: 49). The aim of the Groundwork is to prove that such a principle (what Kant calls the categorical imperative) does exist. Such a principle would be the supreme principle of morality (Kant 1997: 4:392), in other words, the categorical imperative is synonymous with morality. Kant describes the categorical imperative, through three different formulas. The first is the formula of the universal law act only in accordance with the maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law (Kant 1997: 4:421). This law is Kants single categorical imperative (Kant 1997: 4:421); however this is not exactly what our duty is, since the universality of law in accordance with which effects take place constitutes what is properly called nature. (Kant 1997: 4:421). This means that in order for something to be our duty, it must be determined in accordance with universal laws, because duty is not subjective to each individual, but is something that is the same for all rational beings , in so far as we are rational. This means that our duty can and should be phrased as: act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law of nature. (Kant 1997: 4:421). Kant uses four examples to demonstrate how this universal law of nature maxim can be put into use; the suicide candidate, the man who needs to borrow money, the man who gives in to pleasure, ignoring his natural gifts, and the man who is concerned only with himself. Here I will only go into more detail for the man who needs to borrow money example to demonstrate how Kant believed our duty should be understood. Kant also uses the examples to divide duty into two categories perfect and imperfect duties, a distinction which he explicates fully in The Metaphysics of Morals. However, since Kant himself notes that the division here stands only as one adopted at my discretion (for the sake of arranging my examples) (Kant 1997: 4:421), I will not go into the intricacies of the distinction here, as both types are still classed as duties, and my concern here is with duty in general and how it relates to pleasure. Imagine that you need to borrow some money urgently and you will not be able to pay it back. However, the only way you will be able to secure a loan is if you make a lying promise that you will be able be pay the money back. Is this permissible? If we decide this course of action is permissible, then the maxim for this action would be when I believe myself to be in need of money I shall borrow money and promise to repay it, even though I know that this will never happen. (Kant 1997: 4:422). But can this maxim become a universal law? And the answer is quite clearly no, because if everybody made promises that they had no intention of keeping, then of course, no one would ever believe someone who made a promise the whole concept of a promise would become null and void. We also need to take into account that the maxim of the universal law requires not only that we would be able to allow our course of action to become a law, but at the same time, also will that it is a law. Some actions are so constituted that their maxim cannot even be thought without contradiction as a universal law of nature in the case of others that inner impossibility is indeed not to be found, but it is still impossible to will that that their maxim be raised to the universality of a law of nature because such a will would contradict itself. (Kant 1997: 4:424). So even if the idea of the law does not cause a contradiction (unlike the lying promise example where this is the case), still a contradiction in the will may arise. Take the example of the man who is concerned only with himself, and will never come to the aid of another human being. While Kant agrees that such a maxim would be universalisable and such a society could exist, it is still impossible that one should will it to exist. Since a will that decided this would conflict with itself, since many cases could occur in which one would need the love and sympathy of others and in which, by such a law of nature arisen from his own will, he would rob himself of all hope of the assistance he wishes for himself. (Kant 1997: 4:423). The universal law of nature is, in Kants view the most important principle of morality, and although he does formulate two other laws, all three are claimed to be reciprocally equivalent and to represent one and the same principle from different sides (Wood 1999: 18), but I only mention them here. The second law is formulated as such: So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means. (Kant 1997: 4:429) The third law is: Every rational being must act as if he were by his maxims at all times a lawgiving member of the universal kingdom of ends. (Kant 1997: 4:438). In summary, our duty is whatever actions we can commit to, whilst at the same time willing that they become a universal law of nature, so that everyone acted as such in the given circumstances. For Kant, we are virtuous when we do our duty, which we discern by utilising the categorical imperative. Our actions can only have genuine moral worth if and only if they are the manifestation of doing our duty, for dutys sake, i.e. if we are motivated by any other reason other than duty, to do the actions that duty would require, then those actions have no moral worth. However this is not to say that these actions must be condemned instead. But where does pleasure come in all of this? Is it related to our duty, or is it completely independent of it? Kant is often quoted as believing that if we take pleasure in an action, then we are no longer doing it for dutys sake, so the action no longer has moral worth. The passage that leads people to believe this is when Kant discusses the case of the misanthropist. Imagine a man who has great sympathy for his fellow human beings and is as such moved to aid others from the goodness of his personality, and he takes great satisfaction in doing so, conforming with duty in his actions. However, this type of action although it may conform with duty has nevertheless no true moral worth (Kant 1997: 4:398) the sympathetic mans actions are not virtuous. Compare this man with the misanthropist, who takes no pleasure in helping others. He merely helps others because his duty requires it, and if this man does the action without any inclination, simply from duty; then the action first has its genuine moral worth (Kant 1997: 4:398). It seems as though Kant is claiming that the man who enjoys his duty is actually no longer doing his duty at all he is doing the right actions but for the wrong reasons, so we cannot attribute any moral worth to his actions, because only actions done from duty can be said to have genuine moral worth. But is this the same as claiming that pleasure nullifies the dutiful intent that was there initially? Certainly some critics in the past have claimed this to be Kants view, some even going as far to claim that compared to an agent that does his duty with pleasure, Kant must prefer an agent with strong desires that run contrary to the moral law who does his duty with resentment towards the moral law which thwarts his desire (Weber 2007: 66). However, it is not right to claim that an action which is done out of motivation for pleasure, is the same as an action done out of motivation to do ones duty, which then causes pleasure in the undertaking of that act, as an additional side-product. If an action is embarked upon because of the motivation of duty, but the agent then gains pleasure in the undertaking of that action, I do not think this means that the resulting pleasure causes the action to be no longer done from duty, and so cannot be said to have moral worth. It seems absurd to claim that any unintentional resultant pleasure would nullify the dutiful intent that caused the action in the first place, especially since the rightness or wrongness of a volition depends wholly on the nature of its motive. It does not depend on its actual consequences (Broad 2000: 177). In other words, duty does not need to be successful in order to be present the moral worth of an action is based on whether or not it was done from a motive of duty. So as long as the action is done from a motive of duty, then even if the act is not successful, or the desired consequences are not achieved, still the moral judgement stands, because the motive was right. Henson (1979) claims that Kant is misunderstood in this way because he fails to address what Henson calls overdetermination, which he defines as cases in which one has two or more logically independent motives for x-ing, and does x, and would have done x from any one of those motives even in the absence of the others. (Henson 1979: 42). What this means is that duty is not actually needed in the face of these other motives in order to achieve the desired end that duty would produce, but both are present in sufficient amounts, and would each be sufficient to cause the action if the other were not present. This is an example of acting in conformity with duty, but not necessarily from duty how do we know which inclination was strongest, and so thus caused the action? Does the presence of any other motives mean that there is no possibility that we are still acting from duty? Henson criticises Kant for failing to address the idea that cooperating inclinations may be present in sufficient degree to cause action, but it is not necessarily so that they are the cause of the action, rather than duty, which is also present in sufficient amounts. He goes on to claim that if Kant were to answer this criticism then he believes Kant would come up with three possible responses: 1. That duty by itself would have sufficed, so we can say the action was done from duty (whether or not any cooperating motives were present). 2. Cooperating motives were present, so the act was not done from duty. 3. We cannot know for sure which motive was strongest, thus we cannot determine the cause of action. (Henson 1979) Henson does not wish to condemn Kant by insisting that he believes 2), that the presence of any cooperating motives nullifies the dutiful intent. He states that it is possible to have a motive or reason for acting, but never acting on it. For example, if your brother is to leave you all of his money in his will, this is a reason to kill him, but it does not mean you are ever going to act upon that reason. Ross agrees, stating it can be maintained that it is possible to have a direct inclination to do a certain act and yet do it purely from a sense of duty. (Ross 1962: 17). Just because cooperating inclinations (such a pleasure) are present, does not mean that we are not doing the act out of duty, for dutys sake. Taking pleasure in an action does not necessarily mean that it cannot at the same time be done from duty and have moral worth. A pleasurable action can be virtuous. I agree with Henson and Ross that it is possible that pleasure can interact with duty without detracting from the moral worth of the dutiful action. In fact, Kant himself is open to the idea that pleasure can actually be caused by your duty, which Kant describes as the susceptibility to feel pleasure or displeasure merely from being aware that our actions are consistent with or contrary to the law of duty. (Kant 1996: 6:399). Here, pleasure is an indicator that we are indeed doing our duty, and the absence of pleasure would mean the absence of duty. Therefore, pleasure and virtue cannot be mutually exclusive, as many in the past have mistaken Kant to believe. Just because an action has no moral worth because it is not done from a sense of duty, but from an inclination of pleasure or enjoyment, is not to say that it is a morally bad act and should therefore be condemned. It is rather that it should not be praised as being a virtuous act. It is important to remember the distinction between acting from duty, and acting in conformity with duty. Acting from duty means doing the action that duty requires, for dutys sake. Acting in conformity with duty means that you do the action that is required by your duty, but you do it for some other reason, a cooperating inclination. This second type of action, whilst it delivers the desired consequences is done for the wrong reasons, and from the wrong motivation, and so therefore the action possesses no moral worth. If an action is done from any motive other then duty, then it has no moral worth. However, this is not to say that if there are other motives present alongside duty, then they cause the duty to no longer be valid. It is only when no cooperating inclinations are present that we can be sure that an action is done solely from a motive of duty. Even with other inclinations present, the action may still have been done from duty. Other inclinations, although they may be sufficient to have caused the action had the motive from duty not been present, could quite easily be weaker inclinations than that of duty. So even though both are sufficient to cause the action if the other were not present, in some cases when both are present, duty is still the motivator, because it is the stronger of the two. But of course, there is no definite proof in situations such as this, that duty is in fact the true motivation, so we can only say for certain that an action has moral worth, that it has been done from duty, if no other inclinations are present. This does not mean that pleasure nullifies duty, but merely that it muddies the water for anyone trying to discern what the true motivation for the action is. Are they compatible? I believe that the ethical theories of Aristotle and Kant are, to a degree, compatible. The first obvious similarity between the two is that whilst both believed that pleasure was not the ultimate goal of human life, or the point of morality, it nevertheless has some import in both their ethical systems pleasure cannot be quickly, or easily, discounted by either of them. Many philosophers are quick to state that Kant believed that if we take pleasure in any action then we nullify the original dutiful intent that was present, but as I have argued in the previous chapter this is not actually the case. Even though the moral law cannot be based on happiness for Kant, in order to be able to claim this of Aristotle, it would be a gross mistranslation of his use of the Greek word eudaimonia, if we say that it merely means fleeting arbitrary pleasure-induced happiness, thus making happiness the ultimate good. Although the easiest translation of eudaimonia is happiness, it is a life, enjoyable and worth while all through (Ackrill 1980: 19), and all agree in using the word eudaimonia to stand for that which is the highest of all practicable goods, and that all take the expressions living well and doing well to be equivalent to it. (Ackrill 1980: 17). What this means is that Aristotles happiness (eudaimonia) is not equivalent to Kants happiness (that emotion which is brought about through pleasure). Instead we need to compare Kants account of happiness, with Aristotles account of pleasure, in order to appreciate where they both stand with regard to its relation with virtue. Whilst Kant is not opposed to happiness as some claim (because, some claim that an act done from happiness precludes it from being done from duty, so that act can have no moral worth), neither is Aristotle opposed to its counterpart in his philosophy; pleasure (in so far as the right pleasures, in moderation, can in fact be the mean between two vices in his theory of morality). But whilst neither requires the absence of these elements, both deny that it is the ultimate good, or the ultimate reason for morality. For Aristotle, as I have shown, it is acceptable to enjoy pleasurable activities, so long as they are to the right extent, at the right time, with the right aim, and in the right way (Aristotle: 1109a27). For Kant also, the presence of pleasure does not necessarily mean that duty cannot be present also, although in cases where other inclinations are present, it means that we cannot be certain whether someone is acting from duty or not though much may be done in conformity with what duty commands, still it is always doubtful whether it is really done from duty and therefore has moral worth. (Kant 1997: 4:406). Just as Aristotle sees pleasure as a good by-product of virtuous activity as the completion and perfection of virtuous activity so Kant sees happiness as the rightful corollary to the attainment of virtue. (Murphy 2001: 277). In other words, pleasure for both can be caused by the attainment of our virtue, and the enjoyment which that achievement brings with it. Pleasure does not necessarily have to mean that we are either being overly hedonistic, or that we have failed to do our duty it can in fact be the product of the completion of virtuous activity. However, there are areas where the two are not so harmonious. Although neither of them propose an action-based form of moral accreditation, and both lay an emphasis on doing the right sort of actions as dependent upon the agent (the agent for Kant must be doing his duty, the agent for Aristotle must have the right sort of character), they do not wholly agree. For Aristotle, we can learn to desire higher and finer things so that the virtuous man takes pleasure only in the higher and finer things. (Murphy 2001: 278). However, even though we are not wrong in claiming that Kant does not require the complete absence of pleasure in order for us to be able to do our duty, the truly virtuous man does not act on his desires at all. For Aristotle the challenge of moral development is not so much to repress ones desires: a virtuous person, Aristotle says, is not without desires (Murphy 2001: 278). However, for a true Kantian, this should be the case the universal wish of every rational being i s to be altogether free from them [our desires] (Kant 1997: 4:428). We should aim to repress our desires, so that we can act purely from duty, with no other motivations present leading to doubt over whether we have actually been motivated by duty or not, so we can be sure our actions do possess moral worth. Although for Kant, if an action is done out of motivation for pleasure, for enjoyment of the act, rather than out of duty, it means that the act has no moral worth, this does not at the same time mean that the act therefore should be condemned. Such an act, in conformity with duty, but not done for dutys sake would deserve praise and encouragement, but not esteem (Ross 1962: 15). In this way, Kants view of pleasure is once again similar to Aristotles. If the wrong kind of pleasure is pursued, then the resulting action is deplorable and should be condemned. However, if the right kind of pleasure is pursued, then the action can be virtuous. Although for Kant the act cannot actually be virtuous even if the right kind of pleasure is pursued (that kind of pleasure that is in conformity with duty), the similarity lies in the fact that the wrong kind of pleasure must be condemned, whilst this is not necessarily true for the right kind of pleasure (although even the right kind of pleasure co uld be condemned for Aristotle, if it is done in excess and the path of the mean is not adhered to). I think the main similarity between the two lies with the fact that both lay a great amount of import with the intentions, or mindset, of the agent. For Aristotle, a man is able to commit a virtuous act if he is virtuous in character if his mind is set on virtuous acts. For Kant, the same is true a man is able to commit virtuous acts if he aims to do them in accordance with virtue, i.e. if he aims to do those actions which duty requires, which means the resulting actions will possess moral worth. For both, pleasure may or may not be involved, and for Kant, as long as it is not the ultimate motivation for the action, then the action can be virtuous. The difference with Aristotle is that the act, and the man, can be virtuous even if pleasure is the sole motivator. Conclusion In conclusion, although often in philosophy, people are quick to claim that Kants deontological ethics are the polar opposite of Aristotles virtue ethics, I do not believe that this is a wholly correct interpretation of either of the two philosophers. Whilst it is true that the ultimate principle of morality for Kant is that it must be done according to our duty, and for the sake of our duty, with no regard for pleasure, this is not the only relevant part of his ethics. The main criticism against Kant that would refute my conclusion is the claim that when Kant wrote and suppose that now, when no longer incited to it by any other inclination [he] does the action simply from duty; then the action first has its genuine moral worth (Kant 1997: 4:398), he was actually claiming that only when an act is done from the motivation of duty, with no supporting inclinations or motives, can it be said to be truly done from duty, for dutys sake, so only thus can it possess any moral worth. However, I believe this to be a misinterpretation of what Kant actually meant. I agree with Ross (1962), when I claim that instead Kant meant that we can only be sure that an act is done solely from the motivation of duty when it has no supporting motives Kant maintains that we can be sure that a man is preserving his own life from a sense of duty only if his own life is so wretched that he has no inclination to preserve it. (Ross 1962: 15). This does not mean that an act can not be done from duty, if there are supporting motives present, merely that we will have no certainty over the matter. And if this is true, that pleasure can be present during an act of duty, then no longer does Kants theory wholly contradict that of Aristotle, whose claim is that it is possible for pleasure to lead us to the ultimate goal of complete happiness. For Kant an action can only have moral worth, can only be virtuous, if it is done from duty. Contrast this with Aristotle, where an action can only be virtuous if it is the moderate mean between two vices. For Aristotle this means that pleasure can in fact be virtuous, as the virtue of pleasure would be the mean on the scale between pure hedonism and despair (to use my earlier example). For Kant, whilst pleasure is not a virtue it itself, it can be a by-product of our virtuous action, and can indeed be an indicator that we have in fact achieved our duty. Kant states (as I quoted earlier) that happiness can be an indication that we have done our duty properly, for dutys sake, and so thus our actions can be said to have moral worth for Kant happiness can be an indicator that an action is virtuous (cf. Kants Doctrine of Virtue, Book II, as quoted in my fourth chapter). Similarly, for Aristotle, pleasure can be present at the same time as virtue. Indeed, the most virtuous action in any given situation may in fact be the most pleasurable one, although this is not always the case, and sometimes wholly non pleasurable actions are what is required by virtue. The obvious difference is that for Kant, if pleasure is the motivation, then an action cannot be virtuous, whilst this is simply not true for Aristotle. For him, pleasure can be the motivation that causes a virtuous action, although this does not mean that pleasure is always synonymous with virtue. Here, Aristotle can claim similarity with Kant, in that pleasurable actions done to excess would no longer be the mean on the scale for virtue, and so thus these actions done from pleasure have no moral worth. Both also claim that actions done solely from a motivation of pleasure may have absolutely no relation to what course of action would be virtuous in any given situation. I think that the two theories have a lot more in common than many people give them credit for, since many look no further than the obvious difference that Kant does not allow for pleasure to be a motivation, whereas Aristotle does. Whilst there are many differences in the two theories, for example Kants belief that a motivation of happiness is not virtuous, contrasted with Aristotles belief that we can be motivated by pleasure, and still achieve virtue, there are fundamental similarities which cannot be dismissed. Kant and Aristotle both believed, that whilst happiness and pleasure, respectively, could not be the ultimate good, they could equally not be completely passed over in any ethical theory. Although they are often misinterpreted, I think if we take Aristotles pleasure (instead of his happiness, his eudaimonia) to be synonymous with Kants happiness (that of enjoyment), then we are able to see far more similarities in their theories than many first believe. In this way, Aristotles pleasure and Kants happiness are defined as enjoyment, which can co-exist with virtuousness for both. For Kant, because we are able to take enjoyment in the fact that we have our achieved our duty, and because pleasure as a motivation can co-exist with duty, as long as it is not the true motivator, and for Aristotle, because pleasurable acts can be virtuous ones, as long as they are done in moderation. Bibliography Ackrill, J. L. 1980. Aristotle on Eudaimonia, in Essays on Aristotles Ethics, ed. 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